Muted Group Theory

As explained by West & Turner (2010), Muted Group Theory is "provocative and causes us to think about biases in language." (p. 499)

According to Cheris Kramarae, language is a 'man made construction'. For Kramarae and other feminist theorists (Griffin, 2012) "women's words are discounted in our society; women's thoughts are devalued. When women try to overcome this inequality, the masculine control of communication places them at tremendous disadvantage. Man-made language "aids in defining, depreciating and excluding women."

The idea of women as a muted group was first proposed by a social anthropologist of Oxford University - Edwin Ardener. He and his co-worker Shirley Ardener believe that muteness is the result of the lack of power that besets any group in occupying the low end of the totem pole. People with a small amount of power have trouble giving voice to their perceptions. Mutedness does not mean low-power groups are entirely silent. Simply, the main point is whether people can say what they want when and where they want to say it.

For this theory, I will just use a very simple example by supporting Kramarae as she discovers that "women in cartoon were usually depicted as emotional, apologetic, or just plain wishy-washy. Compared with the simple, forceful statements voiced by cartoon males, the words assigned to female characters were vague, flowery and peppered with adjective like 'nice' and pretty'".

Another example:
As a Disney Classic lover, I have decided to use Alice In Wonderland (1951) and Cinderella (1950) as an example. Even from the images above, we can see that they show 'emotions' - here they depict confusion and sadness. This proves Kramarae's statement.

References:

Ayla Malai Abdullah, S. (2012). Lecture Notes. AC-1201 Introduction to Communication. Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look At Communication Theory (8th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill

West, R., & Turner, L., H. (2010). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (4th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill

Genderlect Theory

Genderlect is a term used by Griffin (2000) to label Tannen's theory of cross-cultural communication between men and women. He explains that "masculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects rather than as inferior or superior ways of speaking (Griffin, 2000, p. 436). This theory focuses on Gender and Communication. Tannen insists that there are gender difference in the way we speak. However, neither of these genders are inferior or superior in the way they speak. Rather, masculine and feminine styles of discourse is best viewed as two distinctive cultural dialects.

Below is an example that I have taken from Griffin (2012). It shows a conversation between Harry and Sally in an airplane five years later after they last met.

Sally: Well it’s wonderful. It’s nice to see you embracing life in this manner.

Harry: Yeah, plus, you know, you just get to a certain point where you get tired of the whole thing.

Sally: What whole thing?

Harry: The whole life of a single guy thing. You meet someone, you have the safe lunch, you decide you like each other enough to move on to dinner. You go dancing, . . . go back to her place, you have sex, and the minute you’re finished you know what goes through your mind? How long do I have to lie here and hold her before I can get up and go home? Is thirty seconds enough?

Sally: [Incredulous tone] That’s what you’re thinking? Is that true?

Harry: Sure. All men think that. How long do you like to be held afterward? All night, right? See that’s the problem. Somewhere between thirty seconds and all night is your problem.

Sally: I don’t have a problem.

Harry: Yeah you do.

The above conversation shows that there is a difference in the way that they both think. Both parties think of sex differently. Both Sally and Harry disagree with one another as they find the other's view 'alien and threatening'. Men and women have their own needs and wants. Obviously, Sally is a woman that wants intimacy whereas Harry is a man who craves for independence. This is where the rapport and report concept is mentioned. Women's rapport talk seek 'connection' and men's report talk focuses on status and independence. Women engage in communication because they seek (Tannen, 1990) to develop and maintain relationships with other individuals. Men would only do so because they see it for their own advantage.

As for this theory, I agree that women and men do communicate differently. However, it all comes down to one's understanding and interpretation of what the other party is trying to say.

References:

Griffin, E. (2000). A First Look At Communication Theory (4th Ed). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look At Communication Theory (8th Ed). New York: McGraw Hill

Tannen, D. (1990). You Just Don't Understand. New York: Ballantine

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Uncertainty reduction theory focuses on how human communication is used to gain knowledge and create understanding for oneself. This is one of the theories classified under 'Relationship Development' in Griffins (2012) book. When people meet one another for the first time, their main concern is to reduce the feeling of uncertainty with one another because they know little of the other person (West & Turner, 2012).

This is a common scenario that almost everyone encounter. When we have just joined a club, or when we have just entered the working environment with new people.. we have uncertainties. We feel discomfort and uneasy because we feel curious about others. When we meet new people we tend to have question in our heads like "Does she like what I listen to?" "Will he judge me for what I do?"

Individuals may experience uncertainty in 2 ways - behavioral and cognitive (Griffin, 2012, p. 126-127). Behavioral is when some individuals may be unsure on how to behave in a particular environment or setting or how others will behave whereas Cognitive is when individuals may be unsure of how the other person is or what/how the other person think of the individual.

In explaining my analysis on Uncertainty Reduction Theory, I will be using The Lion King 2 focusing on Kovu. Kovu is a litter from Zira who was an 'outlander' as her family and her are banished from the Pride land. Kovu's family is disliked by Simba, the King of of Pride land because earlier on in the first film of The Lion King 1, Kovu's uncle Scar managed to kill Simba's dad - Mufasa, in a stampede by tricking Simba that it was his fault. However, fate turned their relationship around as Simba's cub Kiara became friends with Kovu and both eventually have mutual feelings for one another. Simba gives Kovu a chance to enter the Pride Land where from there, trust is valued. Kovu has never set his foot at the Pride Land and feels nervous as behind the motive on gaining Simba's trust, lies another motive which is to kill Simba as planned by Kovu's mother, Zira. In the process of gaining Simba's trust and at the same time getting to know Kiara - Kovu experiences uncertainty. He feels unsure of how to behave while being at the Pride Land and he is not sure whether Simba and the rest of the family likes him as at that time, he was not one of them.

Individuals must reduce their uncertainties at some point in order to be able to fashion verbal discourse and actions that will allow one to achieve their interaction goals. (Stacks & Salwen, 2008). According to

References:

Ayla Malai Abdullah, S. (2012). Lecture Notes. Ac-1201 Introduction to Communication. Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill

Stacks, W., & Salwen, B., M. (2008) An Integrated Approach To Communication Theory and Research. London: Routledge

West, R., & Turner, L., H. (2010) Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (4th Ed). New York: McGraw Hill

Communication Accommodation Theory

This theory was developed by Howard Giles and Nikolas Coupland. This theory has a bit of touch in the linguistic field where one may code-switch (when one uses a different language for one sentence and another language for the next line) or code-mix (mixing 2 different language in one sentence for example: singlish).

Communication Accommodation Theory is based on how people from different ethnic or cultural groups interact and they tend to accommodate by speaking with one another in order to gain one's approval. This is done by changing (accommodating) one's vocabulary, speed, accent and language choice. For example:

http://youtu.be/Cc7quH-i_0w

The above link shows a video where Phoebe (of F.R.I.E.N.D.S) is trying to accommodate to Mike's parents on their first meet. Here, we can see that she has changed her typical American accent to a 'posh' accent. Communication Accommodation Theory does not only apply to one's way of speaking but it may also be applied to how one may dress. According to West & Turner (2010), communication may be non verbal too such as one's way of dressing and behavior. People tend to accommodate due to several factors. So looking back at the video, Phoebe dresses unlike herself where she is usually dressed casually or almost like a hippie. In the video, she is seen wearing long sleeves, a pencil skirt and a tidy hair done with a head band. She almost seems like she came from the 'upper class' where they speak and dress 'posh'. The most common reason would be 'to fit in' and 'to gain approval'. The concept of 'convergence' can be seen here where Phoebe is trying to adapt to Mike's parents way of behaving and talking. On a side note, she is also trying to impress his parents.

Another reason may be attraction. Giles and Smith (1979) believe that a number of factors affect our attraction for others. A few examples are: the possibility of future interactions with the listener, the speaker's ability to communicate, and the status differential between communicators. Having the same personality and beliefs or behaving in similar ways may lead to people attracting one another, hence prompting convergence.

In Brunei, we can see how this theory can be applied especially during one's cultural festivity such as Hari Raya, Chinese New Year or Deepavali. For example, during Hari Raya a Chinese female may wear the 'baju kurung' just like any other Malay girls. This shows how she is tring to 'accommodate' to her environment.

References:

Ayla Malai Abdullah, S. (2012) Lecture Notes. AC-1201 Introduction to Communication. Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Giles, H., & Smith, P., M. (1979). Accommodation Theory: Optimal levels of convergence. In H. Giles, & R. N. St. Clair (Eds), Language and social psychology (pp. 231-244). Oxford: Blackwell

West, R,. & Turner, L., H. (2010) Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (4th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill

Symbolic Interactionism

One of the most interesting features of being a human is our ability to use language to communicate with one another. It is simpler to understand this theory by keeping the term 'meaning' and 'interpretation' in mind. George Herbert Mead is one of the founders of symbolic interactionism and the key to understanding how people view the world and to communicate with one another is through 'symbols'. He developed a concept called the 'self' - a concept that helps explain how an individual form his/her identity by interacting with the society. The self can be seen by 2 views: I & Me. According to Griffin (2012), “Herbert Blumer coined the term symbolic interactionism [and]… stated 3 core principles of symbolic interactionism that deal with meaning, language and thinking… [The explanations for each principle is] humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things, meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other, and an individual’s interpretation of symbols is modified by his or her own thought processes” (p. 54-58).

Language itself is a symbol. I will use a common sign which can be seen most commonly in public places such as restaurants, malls, university campus, etc.

Whatever language one speaks, sure enough one would understand what the above symbol stands for. How do we manage to understand and interpret the meaning of it? By applying this theory to this example, one would know what it means because we have 'shared meaning'. The society in which we live in would acknowledge what the symbol above would mean even though we were never taught formally the meaning behind it.

The stick of lighted cigarette has a red slash which overlaps the middle part of it as if to say "NO SMOKING". Thus, one should know that it is forbidden to light a cigarette in such areas.

This theory is one of the most simplest theories to understand because it is all about interpretation of meaning. Meaning is language. Language is symbolic. Therefore, if meaning is shared.. then individuals will be able to communicate with one another through language. Also, as individuals we are able to create an identity and understanding of the self is made through reflection of the self by other's perception and judgment. Meanings could shape attitudes and behaviors and as stated by Turner & West (2010), our actions may be influenced based on "meanings that we assign to people or things and events". (p. 79)

References:

Griffin, E. (2012). A first look at communication theory. New York: McGraw-Hill

West, R & Turner, L., H. (2010). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (4th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill

Woo, C. (2012). Lecture Slides. AC-1201 Introduction to Communication. Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Social Penetration Theory

This theory was formed by psychology professors - Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor in their attempt to describe the dynamics of relational closeness. They compared people to onions. Social penetration is the "process of developing deeper intimacy with one another through mutual self-disclosure and other forms of vulnerability" (Griffin, 2012).

I very much like this theory because it is easily relatable. When I think of this theory, I think of my friends - both close friends and friends I talk to casually. We were strangers beforehand. I believe everyone has experienced it before, where we developed 'deeper intimacy' with another one by disclosing one self. In other words, this theory makes us understand how we have relationships with everyone and it involves someone's inner personality. In getting to know someone, there is 4 stages that one has to go through. According to Roloff & Miller (1987), there are the "orientation, exploratory affective exchange, affective exchange [and] stable exchange" (p. 259).

An example would be a movie called Friends With Benefits (2011) starring Justin Timberlake and Mila Kunis. It shows how 2 strangers knew each other due to work purposes become fast friends and soon became attached to one another at the end of the film. During the first time they met each other, they got to know one another's attitudes and personalities. They voluntary shared each other's personal history, preferences values and secrets with one another. This is what we call self-disclosure. However, a self-disclosure can be divided into 2: Breadth and Depth.

In this film we can see that their relationship development go through both breadth and depth self-disclosure. For example: In terms of depth, Jamie shared with Dylan her sexual secrets such as not being comfortable in making love with the lights on. In terms of breadth, they are able to communicate with one another in just about anything and I believe at one point these 2 experienced a speed penetration because they barely knew each other but they tell each other too much information too fast. I am saying this because yes, the 2 characters went through the orientation stage and exploratory effective stage sooner than expected. Not long afterwards, they experienced the affective stage where there are touching and kissing (intimate scene).

However, relationships may depenetrate. This is where one slowly removes oneself from a relationship. The 'cooling off'. This might occur when one experiences things that make them to not want to befriend with one person. The argument here is: Does all relationship go through termination?

Personally, I would say no because if perceived mutual benefits is much more than the costs of greater vulnerability then I believe that social penetration will continue. This can be analyzed using the 'Cost-benefit' analysis. If there is trust, support, companionship and happiness then social penetration may proceed. Lastly, it is not impossible that all relationships go through social penetration.

References:

Ayla Malai Abdullah, Sharifah. (2012). Lecture slides. AC-1201 Introduction to Communication. Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Griffin, E. (2012). A first look at communication theory (8th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill

IMDb (2012) Plot Summary for Friends With Benefits. Retrieved April 15, 2012 from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1632708/

Cultural Studies

It is not easy to simplify what culture means. It can be defined in different aspects. The sociological meaning of culture is "a manifestation of the way people act, talk, dress, eat, drink, behave socially, and practice their religious beliefs. Culture also spans ethnicity, economic situation, place of work, gender, age sexual orientation, physical handicap, geographic location, and many other aspects of a person's life" (Lester, 1995, p. 71). Peterson (1979) states that when sociologists talk about culture, they usually mean one of the four things: norms, values, beliefs or expressive symbols.

The cultural studies definition of 'culture' is "the practices and processes of making meanings with and from the 'texts' we encounter in our everyday life... cultures are made from the production, circulation and consumption of meanings. To share a culture is to therefore, to interpret the world - make it meaningful - in recognizably similar ways" (Storey, 2003, p. 3).

According to Sturken and Cartwright (2009), visual culture is where the "shared practices of a group, community, or society in which meanings are made out of the visual, aural and textual world of representations and the ways that looking practices are engaged in symbolic and communicative activities".

I will take the Harry Potter movies as an example to show my understanding of this theory.

To understand this theory, main terms such as representation, discourse, ideologies and politics should be kept in mind.

Now, the Harry Potter films represent the magical world of witchcraft and wizardry where these stories tell the adventures that an orphan and his friends had to go through throughout their 6 years of magical education in Hogwarts. On the other hand, discourse means cultural framework. With discourse comes ideologies. What are the ideologies of the Harry Potter films? That would be witches and wizards, wands and broom sticks, fighting trolls and other mystical creatures. However, one must bear in mind that ideologies in a discourse may not be entirely true. Then comes politics and it simply means struggle over meaning. Politics can be found in Media and the Harry Potter films are included too. For example, politics of femininity and masculinity, politics of individuality and agency, politics of gender relations, politics of class, etc.

I can find 'culture' everywhere. I see and I hear it everywhere. In studying Communication, one must be analytical of what is going on around oneself. This theory makes me notice how much the simplest things like the Harry Potter films or even Facebook could be a 'culture'. We can be oblivious of how these things come with ideologies and it is those values that must be represented in order for people to understand.

References:

Griffin, E. (2012). A first look at communication theory. New York: McGraw-Hill

Storey, J. (2003). Cultural Studies and the Study of Popular Culture. United States: University of Georgia Press

Sturken., M., & Cartwright., L. (2001). Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. United States: Oxford University Press

Agenda Setting Theory

When I think of Agenda Setting Theory, I think of the phrase "Not what to think, but what to think about"

At first, it was hard for me to grasp that sentence that I had to repeat it to myself for a couple of times. What to set as the agenda in the newspaper would be a common situation seen in a newspaper company. Such companies in Brunei would be the Borneo Bulletin, Brunei Times and Media Permata. In short, it is how these media press possess the ability to influence its readers on which news information is considered to be the most important. The people behind this would be the journalists. They would have meetings everyday to discuss which news to be put in the cover page and which comes after and so on.

In Brunei, important figures such as the royal family and government officials would usually be in the front page. It depends on who the newspaper article targets. For example:

The above are example of an online newspaper and also a local newspaper where their Majesties and government officials are seen to be on the cover page.

Issues that are considered 'hot' or are considered to be the 'It' news would also usually be featured on the cover page, a way to say that these are the issues that is currently the main buzz. For example:

The above image shows 4 similar news on the bus crash that has claimed the lives of 7 Bruneians last December 2011. Each frames were on the cover page of both the printed newspaper and e-newspaper at different dates/time.

The titles for each of the articles in each frames in the above image, where photos of a collapsed bus and victims laying on the ground would surely be able. This shows that not only does the media share news from all around the world but the media has the ability to influence our lives. The media make us think what they want us to think.

The first level agenda in the above image (top right) is "Life is precious". Simply to say, life cannot be bought nor exchanged. The second level agenda will then make us think what think about and how to think about it. Yes, anyone could write an article on why "Life is precious" but this is how the press media influence us on how to think about what they write about. Other than that, it makes readers think of how going on a trip by using a bus could be dangerous.. it could affect the number of bus users for a particular amount of time because of such incident. McCombs and Shaw stated and as cited by Griffin (2012) believed that the news media is able to "transfer the salience of items on their news agenda to the public agenda" (p. 378). This is how media 'indirectly' influence our lives. Media increases the salience of bus as a transportation.

Overall, I find this theory applicable to everyday life. We create media and media in return, recreate us - in terms of our behavior and thinking, etc. I would also like to mention that it is not only the first level agenda or the second level agenda that should only be highlighted, but images and photo captions are some of the things to consider when identifying news frames (Vreese, 2005, p. 54) in making us what to think about and how to think about it.

References:

Griffin, E. (2012). A first look at communication theory (8th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill

Low, M., Rabiatul, K., & Fung, M. (2011). 7 Bruneians die in Sabah accident. The Brunei Times. Retrieved on 2012 April 15 from http://www.bt.com.bn/news-national/2011/12/21/7-bruneians-die-sabah-accident

Qurratul-Ain., B. (2011). Bus to be sent for forensic investigations. The Brunei Times. Retrieved 15 April, 2011, from http://www.bt.com.bn/news-national/2011/12/23/bus-be-sent-forensic-investigations

Sofri, D., W. (2012). Young Victims Of Bus Crash Tragedy Get Aid. The Brunei Times. Retrieved on 2012 April 15 from http://www.bt.com.bn/news-national/2012/01/13/young-victims-bus-crash-tragedy-get-aid

The Brunei Times (2011). Life is precious. Accessed 15 April 2012 from http://www.bt.com.bn/editorial/2011/12/22/life-precious

Vreese, C. H. (2005). Newsframing and typology. Information Design Journal + Document Design, 13, 51-62

Media Ecology

"Medium is the message"

McLuhan believed that the medium is the message. It was introduced by him to emphasize that the medium will be able to affect the message, in a way that the medium is used as way to imply the content as a substitute of the message on its own. It is the mediu

m that has the ability to change the meaning of the message; how we think of ourselves, others and the rest of the world. However, as pointed out by Paul Levinson (2001), McLuhan did not entirely ignore the importance of the content (message) because the content gets people's attentions more than the medium does. We may be unconscious of that fact but that is how it works. We tend to be oblivious in how important a medium is.

Needless to say, the content of a message could be affected depending on what kind of medium is used. Even if the message has the same content, different medium used will cause a large difference in terms of effectiveness. As a book lover myself, I will then use a 'book' as an example.

I am a huge fan of Harry Potter and I have been reading the book series before the movies were released. Reading is an example of a public and private activity. Reading from a book allows my imaginations to run free and I could imagine just about anything I could think of while flipping through every one of the pages. When each of the movies were out in the cinema, I was quiet disappointed that some of the scenes from the books were cut and skipped as it did not reach my expectation that I have read from the book. However, movies in the cinema allows us to be visual and auditory. This shows that even though the stories from the book were made into movies, the way that the message is delivered through different mediums give a different impact towards different individuals.

McLuhan (1964) once came up with the term "global village" where media tie up the world "into one political, economical, cultural and social system". He argued that the media has the ability to organize societies socially. Electronic media give us the privilege to keep in touch with everyone wherever they are in just a click away.

I will use the 'Internet' as an example:

Everyone talks about the internet. Everyone uses the internet. While typing this, I am also using the internet. The internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks that work with each other to exchange data using a common software standard. It is through telephone wires and satellite links that Internet users are able to share information in a variety of forms. It allows users to connect easily, exchange electronic mail, post information for others to see it and update them frequently, access multimedia information as well as access diverse perspectives from all over the world.

My analysis would focus on a social networking site that can be found in the internet. An example that I will take is Facebook.

I have been a Facebook user since 2008. Not only does it connects us to our friends and family from all over the world, but it has become a tool to spread news in less than 10 seconds. It has become a tool for its users to read both local and national news. Newspaper used to be a daily need from the society but nowadays, what can be found in newspaper can be found in the Internet, in this case, Facebook where current news in terms of economic, social, political and even sports can be found. 2 examples are The Sun and The Brunei Times.

My example on the Harry Potter book series has clearly shown that different mediums will affect its users in different levels. A book may be much more effective to me compared to the cinema even though the message or content delivered is the same thing. I believe that different forms of medium can shape the way we think. The medium delivers the message.

In addition, to understand McLuhan's theory of Media Ecology, one must see that changes in technology could alter the "symbolic environment". My example on Facebook pages where news are displayed and updated everyday shows that technology has successfully shape our perceptions, experiences, behaviors and attitudes. The media has made the world smaller (like a village) where everyone and anything is just a touch screen away.

References:

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look At Communication Theory (8th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill

McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media. New York: Mentor

McLuhan, M. (2001). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. London: Routledge

Levinson, P. (2001). Digital McLuhan: A guide to the information millennium. London: Routledge

West, R., & Turner, H. L. (2000). Introducing Communication Theory (4th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill

Semiotics Analysis

In Week 4 of the first semester, we were taught on what Semiotics is all about. I have heard of Semiotics before and what makes me interested in learning more about it is because of the reasons stated during this week's lecture;-

• To possess the ability to manipulate people's perception
• To know the secret of media advertising
• To have the knowledge to create images and ideas that are effective to the groups of people intended
• To be able to read a person's body language

So, what is "Semiotics"?

My own understanding of semiotics is simple and easy to remember.

Semiotics is the study of signs. It is when you find about meanings deep within the subject itself. In terms of communication, semiotics is important as it is used as a tool of analysis for visual communication. It helps us understand meanings that are constructed by language and culture which makes up the social life.

The basic key terms commonly used in the study of semiotics are:-

• Signifier
• Signified
• Sign
• Denotation
• Connotation
• Codes
• Anchoring

What makes up the "signifier"?

It is formed by 5 senses namely the sight, smell, touch, taste and sound.

For example: 'T O D D L E R S'

'T I A R A S' - these alphabets are read by using our sense of sight which makes up the signifier.

Another example would be a commercial video of "Toddlers and Tiaras" when it was first aired on Travel and Living Channel and also on Home and Health Channel in 2009.

What is a "signified"?

A "signified" is a mental concept derived from the signifier. It is what comes into our minds after/when we see, smell, feel, taste and hear something.

After watching (makes use of our sense of sight) the above video, what comes into our minds would be:

Toddlers, young girls on beauty pageants

Tiaras

Make up, hair sprays and hair dos, fake eye-lashes and sun-tanned skin

Throwing tantrums, rude, feisty, demanding and very "divalicious"

Psycotic parents supporting this beauty pageants for young girls, not to mention pressuring them as well

The above are the things that signifies the alphabets "T O D D L E R S" and "T I A R A S" and also the commercial video. A signifier does not simplify signify just one thing but many as I have stated under each images/gif.

In conclusion:

Signifier + Signify = Signs

1. T O D D L E R S

2. T I A R A S

+

Mental images = "Toddlers and Tiaras"

However, there are 3 types of signs:

• Symbolic
• Indexical
• Iconic

Next, we have the "codes". Codes are a set of rules that are agreed upon by a community or society. These rules are used to interpret signs. Without the knowledge of cultural codes, interpreting signs would be very difficult to understand.

For example:

It is understood that the above sign means NO RUNNING. Meaning no running is allowed.

Another term that is used in the study of semiotics is "denotation". A denotation is a literal description or meaning of a signifier/sign.

For example:

Sign: An unhappy little girl

Denotation: A little girl looking away from the camera, hair beautifully done, looking unhappy with her glamorous diamante dress and lips pouted with a huge mirror and at least three unknown people in the background.

"Connotation" is the representation or concept of the sign. It is the metaphor of the sign or an assumption of what the sign represents. For example:

When we think of Paris, we think of "The city of lights", the Eiffel tower and fine dining.

Last but not least is "anchoring". It aims to fix or limit the interpretation of an image. It is a very powerful semiotic tool that shapes how we view and see things. Anchorage is used to 'anchor' the meaning of the sign so that only a specific interpretation if favoured.

For example: Caption under a photograph

The image says "Ensuring a future for pedophiles and strip clubs". It shows that the reality tv show "Toddlers and Tiaras" brings negative impacts towards the public as it shows young girls acting inappropriately to impress the judges (for example: doing sexy moves on stage) thus "strip clubs" and "pedophiles" as it promotes adults to be near to these little girls, etc.

Without 'anchoring' interpretations can go into so many ways.